Reading for June 8th

DANIEL'S VISIONS CONCERNING THE COMING KINGDOM OF GOD Chs. 7-12: The visions point to the establishment of the kingdom of God as the primary theme of the book. Scholars generally agree that these chapters were written in the mid second century BCE to support the Maccabean revolt against Seleucid Syria. With the fall of Seleucid Syria, the kingdom of God would be realized as an independent Jewish sate centered around the Jerusalem Temple. Read Daniel 7.1-8 In 7.1-28: The vision of the four beasts. This narrative point to God's overthrow of Antiochus IV. In verses 1-8: First year of Belshazzar: Belshazzar's regency began in 554 BCE. Daniel's vision draws upon creation traditions, which portray God's defeat of the sea or a sea dragonas the basis for the created world order (Ps 74.13-17; 89.9-10; Isa 27.1; 51.9-10; compare Gen 1; Ex 15). Here, the chaos monsters emerge from the sea to overturn creation. The four winds refer to the four cardinal directions, the universal context of the four beasts, which represent a succession of empires (ch 2). The lion with eagles wings is Babylon, which employed such figures extensively in art. The bear with three tusks (literally "ribs") in its mouth is Media. The leopard with four wings and four heads is Persia, which ruled most of the Near eastern world. The beast with iron teeth is the Greek-Macedonian empire of Alexander the Great. The tens horns represent the ten rulers of the Seleucid empire, who used horns as symbols of their power. The little horn with eyes ... and a mouth speaking arrogantly is Antiochus IV, who claimed to be a god and usurped the throne following the assassination of his brother, Seleucus IV. Comenst or Questions..

Reading for June 7th

Read Daniel 6.10-28 In verses 10-18: Judiaism requires three set times for prayer: morning, afternoon, and evening (see Ps 55.17; Jdt 9.1). The narrative portrays Darius as a victim of the plot since he intended no harm to Daniel. Cyrus authorized the building of the Second Temple (2 Chr 36.22-23; ezra 1.1-4); which was completed during the reign of Darius (Ezra 6). Darius calls upon God to save Daniel, and attempts to do so himelf. In verse 22: God sends an angel to protect the rigthous Daniel from the lions (compare 3.19-30). In verse 24: The families of criminals are punished as well to deter crime (Num 16.23-33; Josh 7.24; 2 Sam 21.6, 9; Esth 9.1-13). In verses 25-27: Darius' announcement of the kingdom of God serves the fundemental purpose of the book: to point to the establishment of an independent Jewish kingdom identified as the kingdom of God. In verse 28: Cyrus (539-530 BCE) preceded his son Cambyses (530-522 BCE) and Darius I (522-486 BCE) as ruler of Babylon. Comments or Questions..

Reading for June 6th

Read Daniel 6.1-9 In 6.1-28: Daniel in the lion's den. This narrative demonstrates God's protection of righteous Jews from foreign monarchs who demand worship of pagan gods and themselves.. In verses 1-9: Darius (522-486 BEC) organized the Persian empire into twenty "straples," administered by officals called satraps. See Esth 1.1; 8.9. Daniel's success as president, an otherwise unknown position, prompts a plot to bring him down by play upon his religious piety. Darius is persuaded to demand worship of himself as god, much like Antiochus IV Epiphanes, "manifest god." So that it cannot be revoked: Once signed with the royal signet, Persaian laws could not be revoked even by the king. Comments or Questions..

Reading for June 5th

Read Daniel 5.13-31 In verses 13-29: Daniel chides Belshazzar for his arrogance unlike "his father" Nebuchadnezzar, prior to interpreting the writing. The words are Aramaic nouns for units of weight: "mene," a mina, "tequel," a shekel; "parsin," a half mina. Daniel reads them as verbs: "menah," to number; "teqal," to weigh; and "peras," to divide. The root "prs" also serves as the base for the name Persia. In verse 30: Nabonidus fled Babylon at the approach of the Persian army. There is no evidence that Belshazzar was killed. In verse 31: Darius the Mede is not historical. Babylon submitted to Cyrus of Persia in 539. A Persian military commander and relative of the royal family, Darius, took the throne when Cyrus' son Cambyses was assassinated in 522 BCE. The Medes were a part of the Persian empire, and various prophecies asserted that Babylon would fall to them (Isa 13.17-22; 21.1-10; Jer 51.11, 28). Comments or Questions..

Reading for June 4th

Read Daniel 5.1-12 In 5.1-31: Belshazzar's feast. This narrative demonstrates the punishment of arrogant and sacrilegious rulers. In verse 1: Belshazzar was not king of Babylon, but served as regent in place of his father Nebonidus. In verses 2-4: Nebudhadnezzar was not Belshazaar's father (see comment on v. 1). Nebuchadnezzer's son Amel-Marduk (Evil-merodach, 2 Kings 25.27-30; Jer 52.31-34) ruled in 562-560 BCE and was assassinated by his brother-in-law. The use of the Holy Temple vessels (see 2 Kings 24.13; 2 Chr 36.10) for drinking praise to the gods consitutes sacrilege like that of Antiochus IV (1 Macc 1.41-50; 2 Macc 5.15-6.11). In verses 5-12: The fingers of the human hand: A supernatural response to Belshazzar's sacrilege. Both the servants and the king demonstrate their incompetence until the queen reminds them of Daniel. Comments or Questions..

Reading for June 3rd

Read Daniel 4.28-37 In verses 28-33: The pridiction of the dream is fulfilled. In verses 34-37: Nebuchadnezzar is restored when he acknowldeges God's universal sovereignty. Comments or Questions..

Reading for June 2nd

Read Daniel 4.19-27 Nebuchadnezzar's greatness, symbolized by his monumental building programs, was, well-known throughout the ancient world. Comments or Questions..

Reading for June 1st

Read Daniel 4.4-18 There are no extra-biblical accounts of Nebuchnezzar's madness. The Babylonian king Nabonidus (556-539 BCE) lived in the Arabian desert while his son Belshazzar ruled in his stead. In verse 8: Named Belteshazzar after the name of my god: Belteshazzar means "protect his life" and is styled to resemble the name Bel, a title for the Baylonian city god, Marduk. In verses 10-17: The tree at the center of the earth: Ancient Near Eastern mythology frequently employs the image of a cosmic tree (see Gen 2-3). See also Isa 10-5-34; Ezek 31, which portray Assyrian and Egyptian rulrs as trees that will be cut down and sent to the netherworld. In verse 13: Holy watcher: a celestail being (1 Enoch 1.5; 20.1; Jubilees 4.15). In verse 15: Stump and roots in the ground: see Isa 6.13; 11.1 In verse 16: Let his mind be changed: The motifis derved from Nabonidus, but also presupposes Babyonian traditions of Enkidu, the primal man of the Gilgamesh epic, who lived among the animals before he was civilzed by a woman. Comments or Questions..

Reading for May 31st

Read Daniel 4.1-3 In 4.1-37: Nebuchadnezzar's madness. Using the form of an epistle or public proclamation, this chapter demonstrates God's power over pagan rulers. In verses 1-2: A typical epistolary introduction. All peoples, nations, and langauages that live throughout the earth: Mesopotamian rulers generally claimed rule over the entire world. The motif prepares the reader to recognize God's universal soveregnty. In verse 3: Again, Nebuchadnezzar acknowledges God. Comments or Questions..

Reading for May 30th

Read Daniel 3.19-30 The description of the fiery furnace is full of exaggeration, preparing the reader for the great miracle. In verse 25: The presence of a fourth man who has the appearance of a god (lireally, a son of the gods) signifies divine intervention to save the young men (see v. 28). The pagan king acknowledges God's power and decrees detruction for nations that challenge God. Comments or Questions..

Reading for May 29th

Read Daniel 3.1-30 In 3.1-30: The fiery furnace. The narrative promotes adherence to Jewish identity and religion by demonstrating thatGod prtects the righteous. In verses 1-18: Antiochus IV ((175--163 BCE) erected a statue of Zeus in the Jerusalem Temple and demanded that Jews worship Greek gods or be put to death (1 Macc 1.41-64; 2 Macc 6.1-11), His nickname, Epiphanes, "manifest god," indicates that he expected worship as a god. Worshipof national gods was generally understood as a sign of loyalty, but Jews are montheistic and do not worship pagan gods. Charges of disloyalty prompted many anti-Jewish in the Greco-Roman and medievil periods and continue to underlie mondern anti-Semitism. Comments or Questions..

Reading for May 28th

Read Daniel 2.36-49 In verse 44: The God of heaven will set up a kingdom. An independent Jewish state under God, understood by later interpreters as an escatological kingdom of God. In verses 46-49: The pagan king acknowledges God (see Ex 15.14-16; Isa 45. 14-17). Comments or Questions..

Reading for May 27th

Read Daniel 2.24-35 In verses 31-34: Colossi, giant statues of gods or rulers were erected throughout the Hellenistic world to demonstrate Greek power. The five parts of the statue symbolize the sucession of empires that would rule Judea prior to the kingdom of God: Babylon, Media, Persia, Greece, and the helenistic Ptolemaic and Seleucid dynasties. The decreasing value ofthe materials symbolizes historical decline. The mixture of iron and clay is the feet represents the mixed Greek and indigenous ancestry of the Ptolemaic and Sleucid dynasties; as well as the weakness of their rule. In verse 34: A stone was cut out, not by human hands; An act of God. Comments or Questions..

Reading for May 26th

Read Daniel 2.17-23 A vision of the night: compare 1 Sam 3; 2 Sam 7.4. In verse 18: The God of heaven: a Persian title for the Jewish diety (Ezra 1.2; 5.11; Neh 1.4; 2.4). In verses 20-23: A song of praise thanking God for the dream (compare Neh 9.5; Hab 3.4). Comments or Questions..

Reading for May 25th

Read Daniel 2.1-16 In 2.1-49: Nebuchadnezzar's dream. This tale demonstrates God's superiority and Daniel's incomparable wisdom. In verses 1-16: Nebuchadnezzar's impossible demand prepares the reader for Daniel's role as a supremely competent interpreter in chs.7-12. Dream and omen interpretation were widely practiced in Babylonia. In verse 1: The second year of Nebuchadnezzar's reign was 603 BCc. Daniel appears before his training is complete (1.1, 5). In verse 4: From 2.4b through 7.28 the text is written in Aramaic. While Hebrew is a west semitic language, Aramaic is an east Semitic language, orginating in northern Aram (Syria), that was employed extensively throughout the Neareast from the seventh or eigth century BCE until emergence of Islam in the seventh century CE. Comments or Questions..

Reading for May 24th

Read Daniel 1.8-21 In verses 8-17: The ryoal rations of food and wine are not kosher and therefore are unsuitable for Jews (Lev 11; Deut 14). Dream interpretations is a mark of wisdom (Gen 40-41). In verses 18-21: God grants wisdom and understanding to those who adhere to divine requirements. The first year of King Cyrus was 539 BCE. Comments or Questions..

Reading for May 23rd

Read Daniel 1.3-7 In 1.3-7: The Babylonians trained persons from subject nations to serve in their courts. Palace masters: Literally, "chief eunuch." Chaldeans: Aramaic-speaking Neo-Babylonians, used in Daniel for wise men. Daniel and his companions were given Babylonian names. Comments and Questions..

Reading for May 22nd

TALES CONCERNING DANIEL IN EXILE Chs. 1-6: The tales establish Daniel's credibility as a righteous Jew whose God-given wisdom enables him to overcome the challenges of exile and to point to God's redemption of Jews from foreign domination. Read Daniel 1.1-2 In 1.1-21: Four young Jews in the Babylonian court. This tale establishes the thme of adherence to Jewish identity and practice by pointing to the sucess, wisdom, and good health of four young Jewish men who decline the delicacies and wine of the Babylonian king in order to obeserve Jewish dietary laws. In verses 1-2: The third year of the reign of King Jehiakim was 606 BCE. Nebuchadnezzar assumed the throne of Babylon in 605 BCE, after he defeated Egypt and brought Judah under his rule. He besieged Jerusalem in 597 BCE during the reign of Jehoiachin (2 Kings 24.1-16) and again in 587 BCE duringthe regency of Zedekiah (2 Kings 25.1-7). Shinar: The location of Babylon (Gen 10.10; 11.2; Zech 5.11). Comments or Questions..

Reading for May 21st

In 22.6-21: The closing: The voices of the Apocalypse. The voices of the opening are matched and expanded in the closing (see 1.1-11). They often overlap. In verses 6-11: The voice of the angel. These words; see the same chain of transmission at 11.1. In verse 8: The voice of John. I, John, see 1.9; Fell down, see 1.17; 19.10. In verse 9; Worship God is the dominat note of the whole work: 4.10; 7.11;11.16; 19.4, 10; and esp 14.7. In verse 10: John is not to seal the book (see Dan 12.9) because the words are needed now (see 1,3). In verses 12-16: The voice of Jesus. I am coming soon (see also v. 7) is an odd declaration at this point in the story but underliines the sense of urgency about the whole world (see 1.3; 2.5, 16;3.11; 16.15). In verse 13: Alpha and Omega was attributed to God at the beginning of the story (1.8). In verse 14: Blesssed, see 1.3. To wash their robes is to maitain faithful testimony even in the face of death (6.11, 7.14; 19.13; 12.11). The tree of life is available now (see 22.2). In verse 15: Outside are the dogs shows that there remains an outside, even at the end of the story. In verse 16: I, Jesus shows that the story makes Jesus present to the audience; see 1.1 for the same chain of transmission. The root of David and the morning star are messianic images (see Isa 11; Num 24.17). In verses 17-20: The voice of the reader. The invitation from the spirt and the bride has both heavenly and earthly orgins. The warning protects the spokem word. In verse 21: The voice of the letter writer. This is a stadard letter closing, corresponding to the opening at 1.4; see 1 Cor 1.1-2; 16.23-24. Comments of Questions..

Reading for May 20th

Read Revelation 22.1-5. In 22.1-12: The river is perhaps an Eden motif (Gen 2.10), certainly the tree of life is (Gen 2.9, but also see Rev 2.7). In verse 4: Foreheads see 7.3; 14.9. Commments or Questions..

Reading for May 19th

Read Revelation 21.9-27 In 21.9-22.5: The vision of the woman of the Lamb. After the general picture of the new creation we have a detailed portrayal of the new Jerusalem, preented as a paired vision to that of "the great city" (see 17.1). The bride motif points to the wedding that culminated the holy war myth. In verse 10: In the spirit, see 17.3. The mountain is traditionally the place of revelation (Ex 19.20-25); John's vision is built of that of Ezekiel (ch 40). In verse 11: The glory of God was traditional language for God's presence in the Temple (see Ezek 10.18; 43.4). God was described as jasper at 4.3. In verses 12-21: All the city's attributes as symbolic of the peole of God (whose number is twelve). The city has twelve gates because the peole of God enter here; the twelve angels are the heavenly counterparts to the messengers; reference to twelve tribes reminds us that those who enter "keep the commandments of God" understood as the foundation of God's new work (suggesting that John lived in the post-apostolic generation). The angel with a measuring rod provides the symbolic figures that interpret the meaning of the city. It is foursquare because it is of the earth. The English measure of fifteen hundred miles hides the signifcance of the Greek's 12,000 stadia. The city would be a hundred times larger than ancient babylon. The all is 144 cubits high (twelve squared), about 300 feet. Every jewel points to the richness of the city; those named correspond to the jewels associated with the twelve signs of the zodiac, in reverse order (see also Ex 28.17-21; 39.10-14). In verse 22: There is no temple because there is no longer a need to mediate God's presence this is in some tension with 3,12 on the literal level. In verse 24: The continued existence of the nations shows that with all this change John images the world organized in its usual fashion. Comments or Questions..

Reading for May 18th

Read Revelation 21.1-8 In 21.1-8: The new creation. One could not imagine a more stark portrayal of a completely new beginning. The sea is an image of chaos, now banished. In verses 2-3: The descent of the new Jerusalem from heaven symbolizes the merging of the two realms. Thus God now lives among mortals. In verses 5-6: It is done, see 16.17. This is the first direct word from the one on the throne (see 4.2). In verse 8: It is surprising that the faithless are still addressed (see 22.11). Comments or Questions..

Reading for May 17th

THE ACTS OF SALVATION In 20.11-22.5: Three visions close out John's story. The dead are raised and judged; the world is renewed; and the city of God is established. Read Revelation 20.11-15 In 20,11-15: The judgment of the dead. The great white throne recalls 4.2, but white now because it represents the victory won in battles. In verse 12: The image of the books of deeds plays on the metaphor of the finality of the written word and the lived life. The book of life is the book that gives life (as the tree of life, 2.7; 22.4). In verse 14: The sea, death, and Hades (the grave) are the three repositories of the dead, here clearly meaning their bodies. The second death is now identified with the lake of fire but not described as an eternal torment. This would seem to the be the end of evil, but see 22.11, 15. Comments or Questions..

Reading for May 16th

Read Revelation 20.7-10. In 20.7-10: The battle against Satan. The persistence of evil is symbolized by the relase of Satan, who still able to gather an army and march againnst the camp of the saints. In verse 8: Gog and Magog, as well as the general scenario, are drawn from Ezek 37-48. In verse 9: The fire ... from heaven recalls both the sign of the false prophet/ beast (13.13) and the deliverance of the true prophet Elijah (2 Kings 1.10); another image for God's word (2 Esd 13.10, 38). Again there is no portrayal of a battle (see 16.17). In verse 10: The lake of fire, see 19.20. Comments or Questions..

Reading for May 15th

Read Revelation 20.1-6 In 20.1-6: The Thousand year peace. This short scene has been of enormous significance; it is the only reference to a thousand year reign of peace in early Christiatian literature, but the idea of a millennium has dominated much later thought. Angel, see 2.1; 12.7-12. In verse 2: Dragon, see 12.2. Bound , see Mk 3.27. In verse 3: The bottomless pit is the locus of chaos, the antithesis of the throne of God (see 9.1-11; 11.7; 17.8). In verse 4: A thousand years is a complete time. Thrones see 4.2. Souls, see 6.9-11. Mark see 13.11-18. In verse 5: The rest of the dead could mean the righteous who were not martyrs or, more likely, the unrighteous. In verse 6: The second death implies that those raise later will face only the prospect of a second death. Comments or Questions...

Reading for May 14th

Read Revelation 19,17-21 In 19.17-21: The battle against the beast. The scene opens and closes with the gory spectacle of vultures feasting on the corpses after the battle, but no battle is ever portrayed. The false prophet is the same as the beast from the earth (13.11-18). The lake of fire combines the image of Dan 7.11 with Greek idea of hell as a place of torment after death. In verses 20-21: Here only the beasts are consigned to the fire; the rest were killed by the sword; but see 20.15. While the image is violent, the nonviolent meaning is emphasized: the wicked are slain by the word of Jesus (also his testimony; see 12.11; 20.4). Comments or Questions..

Reading for May 13th

THE FINAL BATTLE In 19.11-20.10: This is the climax of the third story, where the war launched by the dragon at 12.17 comes to its devasting conclusion. Still, the sequence is complex and unexpected: After the introduction of the heavenly warrior, the final battle is reported, followed by a thousand-year reign of peace, then anew battle. Read Revelation 19.11-16 In 19.11-16: The heavenly warrior. The heaven opened or the sky opened. The white horse symbolizes victory, but with nearly the opposite meaning as the white horde at 6.2. There the meaning was the one who starts wars; here the victory ends war. Elements of the description were used earlier: Faithful and True are the names connected with the death of Jesus at 3.14. In verse 12: Eyes like a flame and the sword remind us of the exalted human of the opening vision (1.14). In verses 13-16:The robe dipped in blood and the wine press echoes the judgment scene at 14.20. The rod of iron was the mark of the woman's son (see 12.5). The name no one knows signals the person is beyond ordinary understanding (see 2.170. The word of God is the third name given this figure, and the most revealing; it is connected with the image of the sword that comes from his mouth, for this ishow the victory over evil will be won; by the word (19.21). Comments or Questions..

Reading for May 12th

Read Revelation 18.20-19.10 In 18.20-19.10: This passage is a disturbing call to rejoice at the destruction of Babylon, indicating a deep hostility. In 18.20: They rejoice like someone who has won a lawsuit: God has given judgment for you against her. In verses 21-24: The millstone was a common image of judgment (see Mk 9.42); such prophetic-symbolic actions were common. This is now the third image of Babylon's desructon: 17.16; 18.2; there will be a fourth at 19.3. The blood of all the prophets is found in one city, but it is found in the great city. In 19.1: In response to the command of 18.20, the heavenly multitude shout hallelujah, joined by the 24 elders (see 4.4; 11.14), The scene echoes the throne scene in chs. 4-5; see also 11.15-18. In verse 6: The Lord ... reigns echoes 11.15. In verse 9: The angel said to me introduces a short exchange between John and the angel, in which John tries to worship the angel and is rebuked (see similar scene at 22.8-9). In verse 10: The spirit of prophecy or the spirit that inspire prophecy; john must not worship the messenger because the source of the message is the testimony of Jesus (Jesus' life and word). Comments or Questions..

Reading for May 11th

Read Revelation 18.1-19 In 18.1-19.10: The songs over Babylon lament and rejoicing. In verse 2: Fallen, fallen is repeated from 14.8. Babylon (Rome; see 14.6;17.5) is now portrayed as deserted and desolate. In verse 4: Another voice because it now addresses the faithful. Come out is a call for separation; the seven messages give some sense of what such sepearation entailed (see 2.13-16; 3.20-25). In verse 6: Render ... as she ... rendered is a call to appropriate justice (see 16.6). In verse 7: As ... so is a similar call, but adding the notion that the accumulation of wealth and privilege is itself worthy of retribution. In verses 9-19: A dirge in three parts. The kings of the earth mourn the destruction of the great city (see comments on 11.8; 17.18). In verses 11-13: The merchants mourn her lost of wealth; notice how the list ends; slaves-and human lives. There is an implicit indictment of wealth and oppression in these poems. In verses 17-18: The shipmasters mourn the loss of commerce. The image of the great city here is appropriate only to a city like Rome (not Jerusalem, an inland city). Comments or Questions..

Reading for May 10th

Read Revelation 17.1-18 In 17.1-18: The vision of the woman in purple. Once again the story moves from summary in detailed narrative, as the destruction of Babylon is acted out. The mention of the seven angels consciously connects this scene with the previous one (chs. 15-16). The great whore is a new character, but strongly reminiscent of the prophetic charge against God's people: Isa 1.21; Jer 3.1-9; Ezek 16; and throughout Hosea. At the end of the scene John will explicity identify her with the great city (Jerusalem at 11.8) that rules over the kings of the earth, which can only mean Rome. This is also the power of the name Babylon-the city that, like Rome, destroyed Jerusalem. Nevertheless, the violence of thebeast against the whore (v.16) is strongly suggestive of the destruction of Jerusalem in the Jewish-Roman war (with imagery drawn from Ezek 16.36-42). All who sleep with the beast will be devoured. In verse 3: In the spirit is John's way of signaling the spiritual nature of the vision, see 1.10, 4.2, and 20.10. The beast was introduced in ch. 13.4: The purple, scarlet, and goldmark the woman as senatorial class, for only they could wear those colors. In verse 5: Jeremiah saw Babylon as a golden cup in God's hand, making the nations drunk (51.7-8). Forehead (see 13.6). In verse 6: Being drunk with blood echoes the third bowl, 16.6. In verse 8: The beast who was, and is not and is to come is often understood with reference to the ancient myth of the return of Nero, but that myth did not involve Nero's death. Another possibility is that while the present Roman government might not seem so bad, both its past (the death of Jesus) and its future (the final battle) show its beastly or demonic underpinnings. The description satirizes the description of jesus at 1.17-18. In Verse 9: The seven kings are symbolic: There are to be seven emperors (a complete series), but the present emperor is always a sixth (see 666 at 13.11-18). None of the many attempts to count actual rulers has proven convincing. Comments or Questions..

Reading for May 9th

Read Revelation 16.1-21 In 16.1-21:The pouring out. The effects of the seven bowls mirror those of the seven trumpets-earth, sea, rivers, sun, abyss, throne of the beast, Euphartes River-only now destruction seems to be complete (compare 15.3 with 8.9). In verse 6: It is what they deserved indicates a kind of intrinsic divine justice, evil suffers the inevitable consequences of it actions. In verse 12: The Euphrates marked the eastern border of the Roman Empire, beyond which lay Rome's powerful enemy, the Parthians. In verses 15-16: Harmagedon (Hebrew for Mount Magedon) by contrast is not a place on any map; efforts to identify it with Megiddo in Palestine fail because Megiddo is a plain, not a mountain. This is a spiritual war, as the reference to coming like a thief indicates. In verse 17: It is done; the forces of evil are defeatd but no battle is ever shown. The saying is reminiscent of Jesus' cry from the cross in John's Gospel: It is finished (Jn 19.30). Both rest on the conviction that the death of Jesus is the victory over evil. Traditional signs of divine presence follow (see 4.5). In verse 19: The great city is primarily Rome (17.18) but can also be Jerusalem (11.8). In verse 21: The hundred-pound hailstones are meant to seem impossiblly large, even as the other disasters here are of unimaginable proportions. Comments or Questions..